The Long March is one of the most monumental events in the 20th century, often romanticized as a story of survival, resilience, and strategic brilliance. It was a military retreat undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) Red Army to evade the relentless pursuit of the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) forces during the Chinese Civil War. More than just a military manoeuvre, the Long March symbolises the beginning of Mao Zedong's ascent to leadership and the foundation of modern China’s communist regime.

Historical Background

By the early 1930s, the Chinese Nationalist government, led by Chiang Kai-shek, was determined to eradicate the communist forces. The Communists had established a Soviet-like government in Jiangxi Province, which became known as the Jiangxi Soviet. The Red Army (CCP’s military) under leaders like Mao Zedong and Zhu De was involved in an ongoing conflict with the Kuomintang. However, after a series of successful "encirclement campaigns" led by Chiang Kai-shek’s forces, the Red Army found itself heavily outnumbered and surrounded.

Faced with defeat, the CCP decided to abandon its base and embark on a long and perilous retreat to find a new, safer location to regroup. This retreat became known as the Long March. The journey began in October 1934, with the communists marching northwards through some of the most hostile environments on the planet, enduring both the Kuomintang’s assaults and harsh natural obstacles.

The Route of the Long March

The Long March wasn't a single, continuous movement but rather a series of coordinated retreats by various factions of the Red Army. The main body of the Red Army, known as the First Front Army, set out from Ruijin in Jiangxi Province. They were soon followed by other communist forces from neighbouring regions.

• Initial Escape: The Red Army began its retreat with around 86,000 troops and civilians. They managed to break through the KMT's blockade lines after heavy fighting and headed west toward the Xiang River. However, this was a costly manoeuvre, and they lost nearly half their forces after intense engagements with Chiang's troops.

• Crossing Mountains and Rivers: After crossing the Xiang River, the army moved northwest, passing through Hunan, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces. Along the way, they faced formidable geographical challenges, including crossing the Dadu River, traversing the Great Snowy Mountains, and passing through treacherous swamps and highlands. The terrain was as much an enemy as the Nationalist troops, with freezing temperatures, scarce food supplies, and dangerous crossings claiming many lives.

• Zunyi Conference: In January 1935, during a critical stop at the town of Zunyi in Guizhou Province, the CCP held a conference that would prove pivotal. The Zunyi Conference is often cited as the turning point in the leadership of the CCP. Mao Zedong, who had previously been sidelined, emerged as the dominant figure in the party. He gained the support of other key leaders and began steering the party with his strategic vision, particularly his emphasis on guerrilla warfare and peasant support.

• The March Continues: After Zunyi, the Red Army turned westward, trying to reach the communist strongholds in Sichuan. However, the KMT troops continued to pursue them relentlessly. Mao's tactics of avoiding large-scale engagements and sticking to the more remote, harsh areas allowed the Red Army to evade annihilation, but the price was heavy losses due to hunger, cold, and disease.

• Crossing the Grasslands: One of the most challenging parts of the Long March was crossing the barren grasslands of northern Sichuan. The area was largely uninhabited, with no food or shelter. Thousands of soldiers starved or drowned in the boggy marshlands. Those who survived had to rely on roots and wild plants to sustain themselves. This section of the march tested the limits of endurance for even the most hardened soldiers.

• Yanan – The Final Destination: After traversing 9,000 kilometres and surviving more than a year of fighting, the First Front Army finally reached Shaanxi Province in northern China, where they established a new base in Yanan. By the time they arrived, only about 8,000–10,000 people remained from the original 86,000 that set out. While the communists were exhausted and depleted, they had successfully evaded the Kuomintang, regrouped, and laid the groundwork for future victories.

Key Figures of the Long March

• Mao Zedong: The Long March solidified Mao Zedong's leadership over the Communist Party. He employed guerrilla tactics and avoided direct confrontations with the superior KMT forces, emphasizing the need to focus on the peasants for support. His leadership during this period elevated him to become the most influential figure in the CCP.

• Zhu De: Zhu De was the chief military leader of the Red Army and played a crucial role in devising strategies for the retreat. He supported Mao’s guerrilla tactics, which proved essential for the survival of the army.

• Zhou Enlai: Another prominent figure during the Long March, Zhou Enlai was responsible for the overall coordination of military and political strategies. His diplomatic skills and loyalty to Mao helped unite the factions within the CCP.

Significance of the Long March

1. Military and Strategic Victory: Although the Long March was a retreat and a survival effort, it is often considered a military success because it saved the Red Army from complete destruction. The communist forces, though heavily depleted, managed to survive and regroup in Yanan, where they could rebuild their strength and plan future campaigns.

2. Symbol of Endurance and Resilience: The Long March became a symbol of the determination and sacrifice of the CCP. It demonstrated the party’s willingness to endure extreme hardships to achieve its goal of revolution. The Red Army soldiers who survived were considered battle-hardened veterans, and their experience gave the CCP a sense of legitimacy and a heroic narrative that helped them gain more popular support.

3. Mao Zedong’s Rise to Power: The Long March was the moment when Mao Zedong emerged as the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party. His emphasis on guerrilla warfare, peasant mobilization, and avoiding large-scale confrontations with the KMT shaped the future direction of the CCP. Mao's leadership style, which came to be known as "Maoism," was deeply influenced by the experiences of the Long March.

4. Propaganda and Mythmaking: The CCP later glorified the Long March as a foundational myth for their movement. It became a core element of communist propaganda, used to instil a sense of unity, purpose, and invincibility. The hardships faced by the marchers, their loyalty to the cause, and their eventual triumph were portrayed as the ultimate testament to the strength of communism.

5. Shift in Strategy: The Long March marked a shift in the CCP's strategy from urban insurrections to rural guerrilla warfare. After the Long March, the CCP focused on mobilizing the rural peasantry, which became the backbone of their eventual victory over the Kuomintang. Mao’s belief that the revolution would come from the countryside, not the cities, would shape the future of the CCP’s struggle.

6. Influence on Chinese Society and Politics: The Long March left a deep imprint on Chinese political culture. Survivors of the march were treated as heroes and often became the leading figures in the CCP, holding key positions in the government after the communist victory in 1949. The myth of the Long March continues to be a major narrative in Chinese history, representing perseverance, loyalty to the party, and ultimate triumph.

Legacy of the Long March

The Long March has been immortalized in Chinese history, literature, art, and popular culture. Its legacy endures as a defining moment in Chinese communism and is often celebrated in China as a testament to the resilience of the Communist Party.

For Mao Zedong, the Long March became a tool to inspire his followers and strengthen his position within the party. For the CCP, it became a rallying point, symbolizing their capacity to survive against overwhelming odds. Even today, the Long March remains an essential element of China's national narrative, influencing both political thought and cultural identity.

The march set the stage for the eventual communist victory in 1949 and laid the foundation for the establishment of the People's Republic of China.